Genève Face À La Mort : Le Difficile Chemin Entre Tradition Et Réforme

Bienvenue sur « Vraiment Calvin, est-ce là une vie idéale ? Un podcast historique ». Dans l'épisode d'aujourd’hui, nous quitterons les affaires des vivants pour suivre celles des morts — ou plus exactement, la manière dont la Cité de Calvin a réorganisé la mort à la lumière de la Réforme et son rejet du faste et de l'inutile. Car dès 1536, la cité ne se contente plus de prêcher la morale : elle entend aussi enterrer proprement et simplement les morts, surveiller les pratiques funéraires, fixer les tarifs et assigner des fossoyeurs officiels à chaque coin de cimetière. L’inhumation devient un acte réfléchi, encadré et même tarifé — où l’on veille autant à la santé publique qu’à l’ordre des registres.

C’est aussi dans ce contexte que naît peu à peu l’état civil, avec l’instauration des actes de baptême, mariage et décès — autant d’outils pour administrer les âmes… même après leur départ. Entre rationalisation des rites, mesure des épidémies et lutte contre les abus, la mort devient une affaire aussi sociale que spirituelle.

Participez au voyage pour découvrir comment la Genève protestante et rigoriste a tenté de codifier, contrôler et, au fond, dompter ce moment ultime de l’existence, avec méthode, piété… et parfois un soupçon d’intérêt administratif. Car si l’on ne meurt qu’une fois, à Genève, cela ne devait pas se faire en grandes pompes. De la modération en toute chose, tel était le crédo.

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Speaker #0 - Welcome to the Deep Dive. Today, we're going to be stepping back in time to 16th century Geneva. A city that was buzzing with change after adopting the Reformation. 

Speaker #1 - Lots going on. 

Speaker #0 - But instead of focusing on the religious shifts, we're going to be taking a look at how they dealt with something everyone faces, no matter their beliefs: death. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, and what I think is so interesting is we're not just looking at burial practices. We're going to be uncovering how this newly independent city-state facing plague and political uncertainty developed a surprisingly sophisticated system for managing death. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, and all this from just a few excerpts about death and burial practices. 

Speaker #1 - That's right. 

Speaker #0 - From a 2025 study, we're talking about a walled city divided into high and low areas. The city council, or "Petit Conseil" as they were called, kept a close eye on those in the low city, which... was mainly inhabited by foreigners and merchants. 

Speaker #1 - A lot of suspicion. 

Speaker #0 - It was a time of plague outbreaks and political intrigue. And let me tell you, the way they meticulously documented their dead is fascinating, especially considering they were doing this before the King of France made it mandatory. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah. Their approach to death and burial reveals so much about their society. For example, Geneva wasn't a republic at this time, but a signory (or a seigneury). 

Speaker #0 - A signory. 

Speaker #1 - It's a type of lordship where a lord holds both, political and judicial authority over a territory. 

Speaker #0 - So not quite the democratic system we associate with Switzerland today. 

Speaker #1 - No, not at all. 

Speaker #0 - And the Signory wasn't just the walled city. They also controlled surrounding villages, and to strengthen their defenses, they'd recently destroyed their suburbs, forcing those residents into either the cramped city. 

Speaker #1 - Can you imagine? 

Speaker #0 - Or the scattered countryside. Yeah. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah. Imagine the impact of that decision. Now picture this: within the city walls, you have the high city and the low city.

Speaker #0 - Okay. 

Speaker #1 - The Petit Conseil, made up mostly of wealthy citizens, favored the residents of the high city and viewed those in the low city with suspicion. This division wasn't just geographical, it permeated their social and political life. 

Speaker #0 - Okay, so we've got a divided city, play, outbreaks, political tensions. Where did they even put all the dead in this crowded and complex environment? 

Speaker #1 - I had to get creative. There was the main cemetery, of course, but when plague struck, they also used a separate... plague cemetery to try and contain the spread of disease. And when even that wasn't enough, they resorted to a temporary cemetery in Rive Meadow. 

Speaker #0 - Rive Meadow. 

Speaker #1 - When the main one was considered too risky. 

Speaker #0 - So they were constantly adapting to these threats of disease. 

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. 

Speaker #0 - It makes you wonder, did everyone get the same treatment in death? 

Speaker #1 - Not exactly. While the city council aimed to provide respectful burials for all citizens, criminals faced a different fate. 

Speaker #0 - Okay. 

Speaker #1 - Their bodies were often left on the gallows to decompose.

Speaker #0 - Oh, wow. 

Speaker #1 - Serving as a grim spectacle and a warning to others. 

Speaker #0 - That's a pretty harsh punishment. 

Speaker #1 - It was. 

Speaker #0 - But I suppose public order was a top priority in those times.  

Speaker #1 - Oh, for sure. 

Speaker #0 - Did this practice ever cause issues, especially with the risk of spreading disease? 

Speaker #1 - It certainly created tension. Decomposing bodies, especially during plague outbreaks, posed a significant health risk. This led to a constant struggle between wanting to deter crime and protect public health. 

Speaker #0 - It sounds like a morbid dilemma. So how did they try to resolve this? 

Speaker #1 - Well, families of the executed often pleaded for a proper burial, but their requests were usually denied. Eventually, they started burying the remains directly beneath the gallows, essentially hiding the problem while still upholding the punishment. 

Speaker #0 - A grim but practical solution. It seems like they were facing a lot of challenges when it came to managing death in this period. How did they bring order to this chaos, especially with the added layer of religious change brought about by the Reformation? 

Speaker #1 - That's where things get really interesting. After adopting the Reformation, the Genevans implemented a set of regulations for death and burial. These were motivated by a desire for public health and a newfound respect for the deceased values central to the Reformed faith. 

Speaker #0 - So they weren't just reacting to circumstances. They were actively shaping their approach to death based on their... evolving beliefs. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. 

Speaker #0 - This shift in perspective must have had a major impact on how they dealt with the practicalities of death. Did they develop any specific systems or roles to handle burials? 

Speaker #1 - They did. They introduced the role of the enterer, which is essentially an undertaker. These were elected officials responsible for burying the dead. 

Speaker #0 - Wow. 

Speaker #1 - There were four assigned to the city and two to Saint-Gervais ensuring a structured approach to burials. 

Speaker #0 - It's amazing how they were creating these systems even back then. It sounds very organized compared to what I imagine for a 16th century city. Did everyone have access to these services? I mean, death could be expensive even today. 

Speaker #1 - You raise a good point. The city council was actually quite sensitive to the cost of dying. They implemented a system with fixed prices for burials, making sure they were affordable for everyone. 

Speaker #0 - Wow, that's incredibly forward-thinking for that time period.

Speaker #1 -  It was.

Speaker #0 - It suggests a real commitment to social welfare even in death. 

Speaker #1 - Indeed. And to emphasize just how common death was, especially among the most vulnerable, keep in mind that one in two infants didn't reach their first birthday. 

Speaker #0 - Oh my gosh. 

Speaker #1 - The mortality rate was staggeringly high. 

Speaker #0 - That puts things into perspective. 

Speaker #1 - It does. 

Speaker #0 - So we have designated undertakers fixed prices for burials. What other changes do they make to their burial practices? Did anything else stand out in the research? 

Speaker #1 - Two significant decisions come to mind. Firstly, they introduced the use of a black shroud to transport the dead,to add a touch of dignity and respect to the process. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, I could see how that would have been a comfort to the grieving family. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. The second decision was a seemingly simple one, but it had profound consequences. They mandated that undertakers report every death, first to a lieutenant and then to the local preacher. 

Speaker #0 - And this reporting requirement led to...

Speaker # 1 - ... the creation of official written death records. And here's where things get really fascinating: these records, the simple in their initial purpose, would eventually evolve into a sophisticated system of civil registration. 

Speaker #0 - So out of this tumultuous period with its playings, political anxieties, and religious reforms emerged a practice that would become a cornerstone of modern governance. It's incredible how something as simple as recording deaths could have such a lasting impact. 

Speaker #1 - It is. It's a testament to their foresight and perhaps a hint of the anxieties of the time. They needed to understand their population, perhaps for control, perhaps for survival. But regardless of their motivations, this meticulous documentation provides a window into 16th century Geneva that we'll delve deeper into. 

Speaker #0 - This is already so intriguing.

Speaker #1 - It is. 

Speaker #0 - We've covered a lot of ground from the layout of the city to the evolution of their burial practices. But before we get ahead of ourselves, I think it's time to take a pause and reflect on what we've learned so far. 

Speaker #1 - I agree. There's so much more to uncover in these records, and I'm eager to dive deeper into their implications. 

Speaker #0 - We've been exploring 16th century Geneva and how this city grappling with plague, political uncertainty, and religious shifts. 

Speaker #1 - Lots of change. 

Speaker #0 - Developed a surprisingly complex system for dealing with death.

Speaker #1 - For sure. 

Speaker #0 - And we left off on the emergence of those meticulous death records. 

Speaker #1 - Right. What started as a simple reporting requirement blossomed into a system of civil registration recording, not just deaths, but also births and marriages. 

Speaker #0 - I make you wonder what drove them to document everything so meticulously. 

Speaker #1 - Well, it wasn't simply about keeping track. These records were a powerful tool for understanding and managing their population. Remember, Geneva was a newly independent city-state in a time of great upheaval. They were surrounded by powerful neighbors, constantly threatened by disease, and navigating the social changes brought on by the Reformation, information was vital for their survival. 

Speaker #0 - So these records, more than just a bureaucratic necessity, were a way for them to gain a sense of control in uncertain times. 

Speaker #1 - Precisely. They needed to understand who lived within their walls, where they came from, and how their population was changing. These records helped them track migration patterns, identify areas of growth or decline, and even monitor the spread of disease. 

Speaker #0 - It's fascinating how these records reflect the anxieties and priorities of the time. It's like they were trying to make sense of a world in flux by quantifying it, putting everything down on paper. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. And it wasn't just about understanding their population in the present. These records also help them plan for the future by analyzing birth and death rates. They could anticipate needs for housing resources and even social services. 

Speaker #0 - Did they use this information to actively shape their society? 

Speaker #1 - It's a good question. 

Speaker #0 - I mean, we talked about how the city council used public punishments to deter crime. Did they apply a similar approach to other aspects of city life? 

Speaker #1 - There's certainly evidence to suggest that by tracking which families were thriving and which areas were experiencing growth, they could potentially incentivize certain behaviors or direct resources to specific parts of the city. It was a subtle form of social engineering, perhaps unintentional at first, but with clear implications for how their society developed. 

Speaker #0 - It sounds like a double-edged sword. On the one hand, they were using information to improve public health, manage resources and plan for the future. On the other hand, it raises questions about individual privacy, and the potential for control. 

Speaker #1 - That tension between collective good and individual liberty is a recurring theme throughout history. In a way, these Genevans were grappling with a challenge we still face today, how to balance the benefits of data collection with the need to protect individual rights. 

Speaker #0 - It's a reminder that even seemingly mundane bureaucratic practices can have profound ethical implications. But let's not forget the human stories behind these records. 

Speaker #1 - Of course not. 

Speaker #0 - We're talking about real people who lived and died in 16th century Geneva, each with their own hopes, struggles, and experiences. Did those individual stories come through in the research? 

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. While the records might seem impersonal at first glance, they offer glimpses into the lives of everyday Genevans. We can eat patterns of marriage and family formation, trace the impact of disease outbreaks, and even learn about the social dynamics within the city. 

Speaker #0 - You mentioned earlier that the city council was sensitive to the cost of dying, and set fixed prices for burials to ensure they were affordable for everyone. Did that apply to all citizens regardless of their social standing? 

Speaker #1 - That's where the nuances of their social hierarchy become apparent. While the council aimed for affordability, there's evidence to suggest a preference for the head of the household. Burial costs might have been structured to prioritize those seen as the economic and social pillars of the community. 

Speaker #0 - So even in death, social distinctions persisted. 

Speaker #1 - It seems so. 

Speaker #0 - This makes me think about the division between the high and low city. Did that division play out in their burial practices as well? 

Speaker #1 - That's a question worth exploring further. While their records don't explicitly state different treatment based on residence, it's possible that subtle differences existed in the quality of the burial, the location within the cemetery, or even the rituals performed, we might not have all the answers, but these questions help us to understand the complexities of their society. 

Speaker #0 - It's like piecing together a puzzle. Each detail, each record, adds another layer to our understanding of 16th century Geneva. We've gone from a city grappling with plague and political change to a society that developed a sophisticated system for managing death and using information to shape its future. 

Speaker #1 - It's really incredible. 

Speaker #0 - It's a reminder that history is full of surprises, and while the patch may seem distant, it often holds lessons that resonate deeply with our own time. 

Speaker #1 - It's fascinating to consider how these practices born out of necessity and circumstance laid the groundwork for how we manage death, collect data and govern ourselves today. The echoes of 16th century Geneva can be found in our own modern systems and institutions. 

Speaker #0 - It's a sobering thought, but also an inspiring one. It shows how even in the face of challenges, societies can adapt, innovate, and create systems that shape the course of history. 

Speaker #1 - And those systems, as we've seen, are always evolving, reflecting the values, anxieties, and aspirations of each generation. 

Speaker #0 - We've covered a lot of ground, but there's still so much to unpack. What do you say we take a moment to gather our thoughts and then dive back into this rich historical tapestry. 

Speaker #1 - I'm all for it. There are always more connections to make, more stories to uncover. 

Speaker #0 - We've journeyed through 16th century Geneva. A city facing plug, political uncertainty and religious change. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, a lot to deal with. 

Speaker #0 - We've seen how they developed a system for managing death that was surprisingly advanced for its time. 

Speaker #1 - It really was. 

Speaker #0 - We've uncovered how their burial practices shaped by both necessity and their evolving values, led to the creation of these meticulously detailed records, records that went beyond simply documenting the dead. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, they really give us a glimpse into their world. 

Speaker #0 - These records, as we've discovered, became a tool for understanding, controlling, and even suddenly shaping the population. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. 

Speaker #0 - They were trying to make sense of a world in constant flux. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, it was a time of great change. 

Speaker #0 - And these records gave them a way to quantify and analyze their society. 

Speaker #1 - And exert some control over it. 

Speaker #0 - And in doing so, they created a system that foreshadowed modern practices of data collection and governance. 

Speaker #1 - It's fascinating, isn't it? 

Speaker #0 - It's incredible to think how these Genevans, grappling with challenges so different from our own, laid the groundwork for systems we still use today.

Speaker #1 - Yeah, it's a real testament to the enduring power of ideas. 

Speaker #0 - But as we wrap up this deep dive, I'm curious, what's the most important takeaway for our listeners? 

Speaker #1 - I think the key takeaway is to be aware, to recognize that information, even something as seemingly simple as death records, can be a powerful tool. It can be used for good, to manage resources, track disease plan for the future, but it can also be used to control and manipulate. 

Speaker #0 - So it's a double-edged sword. 

Speaker #1 - Yes.

Speaker #0 - It's a reminder that we need to be mindful of how data is collected, who has access to it, and how it's used. The questions these Genevans faced about the balance between collective good and individual liberty are still relevant today. 

Speaker #1 - They are more than ever. 

Speaker #0 - Absolutely. We live in an age where information is constantly being gathered and analyzed. Understanding the historical context of data collection and its potential for both benefit and harm can help us navigate the complexities of our own digital age. 

Speaker #1 - I think that's a great point. 

Speaker #0 - This deep dive has been a real eye-opener. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, it has. 

Speaker #0 - We started with 16th century burial practices and ended up reflecting on the power of information and its impact on society both then and now. 

Speaker #1 - It's all connected. 

Speaker #0 - It's a testament to the enduring relevance of history. By studying the past, we can gain a deeper understanding of the present and make more informed choices about the future. 

Speaker #1 - I think that's a perfect note to end on. 

Speaker #0 - So until next time, keep exploring, keep questioning...

Speaker #1 - ... and keep learning...

Speaker #0 - ... and keep diving deep into the fascinating stories that history has to offer. 

Gérer la mort à Genève au temps de Calvin : tout sauf une partie de plaisir !

par Dr. Christophe Chazalon

Introduction : Géographie de la Seigneurie de Genève
Au XVI^e siècle, Genève était une seigneurie avant d'être une république. Elle englobait non seulement le territoire intra-muros, entouré de faubourgs, mais aussi les terres situées à proximité immédiate de la ville. Deux ans avant l'adoption de la Réforme en 1536, fortement encouragés par les Bernois, les Genevois décidèrent de détruire tous les faubourgs de la ville afin d'améliorer sa protection et d'empêcher la préparation de complots facilités par ces faubourgs. Le dernier faubourg, celui de la Corraterie, fut détruit en 1540. Dès lors, les habitants résidèrent soit intra-muros soit la campagne. Après la guerre avec le duc de Savoie et le départ du prince-évêque de Genève, Pierre de La Baume, ces espaces furent classés en deux types : d'une part, les territoires entièrement gérés par les autorités de la ville, appelés domaines de l'évêque, dont Jussy. Deuxièmement, il y avait les territoires partagés avec les Bernois, venus aider les Genevois dans leurs luttes, et plus connus sous le nom de territoires de Saint-Victor et Chapitre. Il s'agissait des territoires autrefois détenus par le prieuré de Saint-Victor et ceux du chapitre de la cathédrale de Genève, qui furent gérés conjointement par les autorités bernoises et genevoises jusqu'en 1567, non sans difficultés. Les conflits entre les deux seigneuries, par l'intermédiaire de leurs officiers, furent incessants, culminant avec l'affaire des « Artichauts », qui conduisit à la signature en 1544 du second Départ de Bâle, qui permit, avec plus ou moins de succès, l'administration conjointe jusqu'à l'arrivée des troupes napoléoniennes à la fin du XVIII^e siècle. Ainsi, en 1536, la ville de Genève était protégée par des forteresses toujours plus nombreuses et entourée de champs et de forêts, avec des villages de tailles diverses disséminés aux quatre coins du monde environnant, qu'elle devait toutefois défendre en cas d'attaque.

Mais une autre particularité régnait sur la ville du bout du lac : elle était divisée en deux parties, non pas par le Rhône, à l'embouchure duquel se trouve la ville, mais par ce que l'on appelle communément aujourd'hui « les rues basses ». En effet, la rue principale du centre-ville actuel, où circule le tramway, constituait, sous l'Ancien Régime, la ligne de partage de la ville. La partie de la ville située au-dessus était appelée « ville haute », et l'autre partie, vers le lac, « ville basse ». Cette ville basse comprenait également la partie de la ville construite sur la rive droite du Rhône, appelée « Villeneuve », puis plus généralement « Saint-Gervais ».

De manière simpliste mais parfaitement admise à l'époque de Calvin, la « ville haute » comprenait une large majorité des bourgeois et des citoyens de la ville, tandis que la « ville basse », et donc Saint-Gervais, était principalement composée d'étrangers et de commerçants. Cela ressort clairement des décisions du Petit Conseil de Genève, l'organe exécutif de la Seigneurie, consignées dans les registres des Conseils. Le Petit Conseil se méfiait des habitants de la « ville basse » et, même en temps de guerre ou d'alerte maximale, demandait à son capitaine général de déménager dans la « ville haute » pour assurer une meilleure protection de la ville.

Quelques références complémentaires pour découvrir le monde des sépultures sous l'Ancien Régime :

• Lorraine C. ATTREED, "Preparation for death in Sixteenth Century Northern England", The Sixteenth Century journal, vol. 13, n° 3, 1982, pp. 37-66      web
• Louis BLONDEL, Le cimetière de Plainpalais, Genève: Ville de Genève, [1959], 19 p.
• Eva BUTINA, "Excavations of the 16th-century Protestant church and graveyard in Govce, north-east Slovenia", Post-medieval archaeology, vol. 52, n° 2, 2018, p. 170-192      web
• Cécile BUQUET-MARCON / Jean-Yves DUFOUR, "Huguenots en boîtes de nuit. Le cimetière de Charenton (Val-de-Marne)", Les nouvelles de l'archéologie, n° 143, 2016, p. 22-27      web
• Benjamin CHAIX, "On n'enterre plus les Genevois en pleine ville depuis 1536. À travers les siècles, l'inhumation ne va pas sans difficultés", Tribune de Genève, 2020/05/02, online      web
• Stina FALLBERG SUNDMARK, "Remembering the dead and reminding the living: blessing of the corpse and burial in Sixteenth Century Sweden", Journal of Early Modern Christianity, vol. 7, n° 1, 2020/05, online      web
• Christian GROSSE, "Une mort déritualisée? Usages funéraires dans la tradition protestante réformée", in Jean-François BOUDET (éd.), Les rites et usages funéraires: essais d'anthropologie juridique, Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires d'Aix-Marseille, 2019, pp. 181-196      web
• Yves KRUMENACKER, Un parcours en protestantisme: I - Chemin de traverse, Lyon: LARHRA, 2024/03, 431 p., online: in particular the chapter entitled "Les Huguenots face à la mort à la fin du XVII^e siècle", p. 183-190      web
• Emmanuel LE ROY LADURIE, "Système de la coutume. Structures familiales et coutume d'héritage en France au XVI^e siècle", Annales. Histoire, sciences sociales, vol. 27, n° 5, 1972, pp. 825-846      web
• Gordon D. RAEBURN, "The reformation of burial in the Protestant Churches", in Philip BOOTH / Elizabeth TINGLE (ed.), A companion to death, burial, and remembrance in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, c. 1300-1700, Leiden (NL): Brill, 2020/11, pp. 156-174      web
• Natalie RILLIET, Le cimetière genevois: histoire d'une prise de conscience, Genève: Université de Genève, 2006, 99 p.      web
• Sandra RUBAL, Les Genevois et la mort à travers les testaments à la fin du Moyen Âge, Genève: Université de Genève, 1996, n/a p.: mémoire de licence
• SÁNCHEZ-ALBORNOZ (Nicolas), "Les registres paroissiaux en Amérique Latine", Revue d'histoire suisse, n° 17, 1967, pp. 60-71      web
• Jörn STAECKER, "A Protestant habitus: 16th-century Danish graveslabs as an expression of changes in belief", in David GAIMSTER (ed.), The archaeology of Reformation, 1480-1580, London: Routledge, 2003, online      web
• Elizabeth C. TINGLE / Jonathan WILLIS (ed.), Dying, death, burial and commemoration in Reformation Europe, London: Routledge, 2015, 242 p.      web
• Cécile TREFFORT (éd.), Le cimetière au village dans l'Europe médiévale et moderne, Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Midi, 2020/02, 256 p.      web
• anonymous, "The Protestants' attitude towards death", museeprotestant.org, s.d., online      web