The Misdeeds of François Bourdon

Welcome to "Really Calvin, is this an ideal life? A historical podcast." Today, we're peering into the homes and families of 16th-century Geneva, uncovering a world both familiar and alien to our modern sensibilities. Between 1536 and 1564, Geneva's family structure was deeply patriarchal, with women generally occupying subordinate roles, though exceptions did exist. This wasn't just about social norms; it was a response to the harsh realities of the time.
High infant mortality rates and limited hygiene shaped family dynamics and property practices. At the heart of each household stood the patriarch, wielding significant power over family resources and decision-making. Yet, even as Calvin sought to reshape Geneva's morality, some aspects of daily life proved resistant to change. Public baths, for instance, remained sites of potential promiscuity despite Calvin's efforts to regulate them.
Join us as we explore how these family structures and hygiene practices offer a unique window into the complex interplay of tradition, reform, and daily life in Calvin's Geneva.

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Speaker #0 - Welcome to another deep dive. This time we're heading back to 16th century Geneva.

Speaker #1 - Ooh, exciting.

Speaker #0 - I know, right? And get this, we've got some really cool historical documents about a guy named François Bourdon.

Speaker #1 - Wow, a deep dive with a real person. I'm already intrigued.

Speaker #0 - Me too. Get ready for some juicy scandals and a glimpse into what life was really like back then.

Speaker #1 - Sounds like my kind of history lesson. So what kind of documents are we talking about?

Speaker #0 - Well, they are excerpts from a 2024 academic PDF.

Speaker #1 - Okay, a recent analysis.

Speaker #0 - Yeah, and the PDF focuses on some archival records called consistory records.

Speaker #1 - Consistory records? From when?

Speaker #0 - From 1544 to 1560, right in the thick of the Reformation.

Speaker #1 - Ah, that makes sense. Geneva to the 1500s, that's John Calvin territory.

Speaker #0 - Exactly. And these consistory records, for those of us who didn't live through it, can you explain what those are?

Speaker #1 - Sure. The consistory was basically like a moral court.

Speaker #0 - A court, so like judges and laws?

Speaker #1 - Nope, sort of. It was established by John Calvin himself to oversee the moral conduct of everyone in Geneva.

Speaker #0 - Everyone, like spying on their neighbors.

Speaker #1 - Not exactly spying, but keeping tabs on people's behavior and making sure they were following the rules.

Speaker #0 - The rules? What kind of rules are we talking about?

Speaker #1 - Well, a lot of it had to do with the new religious and social norms.

Speaker #0 - So basically enforcing Calvin's vision for Geneva.

Speaker #1 - Precisely. They dealt with all sorts of things. Marriage, family life, sexual behavior. Even things like slander or accusations of witchcraft, you name it.

Speaker #0 - Wow. So they had a lot of power then.

Speaker #1 - They did. They could investigate, issue warnings, impose fines, even imprison people. Okay.

Speaker #0 - So serious stuff.

Speaker #1 - Yeah. They weren't messing around when it came to upholding the moral code.

Speaker #0 - It's starting to sound less like a court and more like a morality police. 

Speaker #1 - Hmm. In a way, you could say that.

Speaker #0 - And this is where our friend Francois Bourdon comes in, right?

Speaker #1 - You got it. Francois was a wealthy, unmarried Genevan citizen.

Speaker #0 - A wealthy bachelor! I'm sensing trouble already.

Speaker #1 - You're on the right track. The sources describe him as a "paillard invétéré" (a hardened libertine!).

Speaker #0 - Okay, first of all, what does that even mean?

Speaker #1 - It's 16th century French for a hardcore womanizer.

Speaker #0 - Uh-huh. So not just a few harmless flings, then.

Speaker #1 - Let's just say Francois had a reputation.

Speaker #0 - A reputation for trouble, it seems.

Speaker #1 - You could say that. But here's where it gets interesting. Despite his actions, He held positions of power.

Speaker #0 - Wait, what? So they knew he was this this "paillard"?

Speaker #1 - Oh, yes. It wasn't exactly a secret. And yet he still managed to climb the social ladder.

Speaker #0 - OK, so maybe money did talk back then after all.

Speaker #1 - Wealth and social status definitely carried weight. That's for sure.

Speaker #0 - It makes you wonder, though, how much could you get away with just by being rich and well-connected?

Speaker #1 - Those are the questions we're going to explore. It's fascinating to see how power dynamics played out back then.

Speaker #0 - Absolutely. So how did Francois manage to stay in the good graces of this morality police despite his, shall we say, colorful lifestyle?

Speaker #1 - That's a great question. And it's where the consistory records get really juicy.

Speaker #0 - I knew there had to be more to this story.

Speaker #1 - Oh, there's plenty more. The records detail numerous instances of what they call "paillardises".

Speaker #0 - "Paillardises"? Is that like plural for "paillard"?

Speaker #1 - You could say that. Essentially, we're talking about fornication, multiple times, resulting in several illegitimate children.

Speaker #0 - Hold on. They kept records of all that.

Speaker #1 - Oh, yeah. Meticulously. It's amazing the level of detail in these documents.

Speaker #0 - Wow. So, first of all, was a busy guy, to say the least. They just got their lease. You could say that. In 1545, for example, he's accused of having a child with Jeanne de La Joux, who was his servant.

Speaker #1 - A servant. So, already a bit of a power imbalance there.

Speaker #0 - Exactly. And not only that, the child was baptized Catholic.

Speaker #1 - Whoa. In the heart of Reformation Geneva. That's a bold move.

Speaker #0 - Very bold. Almost like a deliberate challenge to the new religious order.

Speaker #1 - It sounds like François wasn't afraid of a little controversy.

Speaker #0 - That's one way to put it. But this was just the beginning. Fast forward a couple of years to 1547.

Speaker #1 - Oh boy, here we go again.

Speaker #0 - Jeanne de La Joux pops up again. This time, she's working as a servant in another prominent household, Henri Aubert's.

Speaker #1 - And guess what? François is accused of fathering another child with her.

Speaker #0 - You got it. It seems he had a habit of making return appearances before the consistory. So that must have been getting pretty familiar with him by then.

Speaker #1 - You could say that, but it wasn't just Jeanne de La Joux. Don't tell me there's more. There's always more with François. That same year, he's also accused of having an affair with a married woman.

Speaker #0 - Okay, so now we've got servants, married women.

Speaker #1 - Her name was Robelle Reclan, wife of a local butcher named Jean de Gex.

Speaker #0 - Wow, François was playing a dangerous game. What were the consequences for all this back then?

Speaker #1 - Well... There were consequences, but maybe not as severe as you might expect.

Speaker #0 - Really? Given what we know about Calvin's Geneva.

Speaker #1 - I know, right? He was imprisoned and fined, but the sentences were often considered quite lenient.

Speaker #0 - Lenient? For repeated offenses like this.

Speaker #1 - It does make you wonder if wealth and status had something to do with it.

Speaker #0 - I'm starting to think that's the key to this whole story.

Speaker #1 - It's certainly a factor, but to understand it fully, we also need to consider the societal norms of the time, especially when it comes to unmarried men.

Speaker #0 - So being a bachelor gave you a free pass? Is that what you're saying?

Speaker #1 - Not a free pass exactly, but there was a different set of expectations, shall we say.

Speaker #0 - Explain that to me. Why would being unmarried make a difference?

Speaker #1 - Well, remember... This is the Reformation. Marriage and family were highly valued. But there was also a sense that unmarried men were less accountable for their actions.

Speaker #0 - Interesting. So it wasn't just about Francois being wealthy. It was also about how society viewed bachelors back then.

Speaker #1 - Precisely. It's a complex issue and one that historians still debate today.

Speaker #0 - It makes you wonder, though, if François even cared about any of this. Did he ever show any remorse?

Speaker #1 - Well. There's this one anecdote from the records that really struck me.

Speaker #0 - Lay on me.

Speaker #1 - A witness testified that they heard François boasting about fathering seven illegitimate children before marriage.

Speaker #0 - Seven? This guy was a walking scandal. It's like he was daring them to punish him.

Speaker #1 - It does seem that way. And the fact that he got away with relatively light sentences just adds to the intrigue.

Speaker #0 - Okay, I'm starting to see why you find this case so fascinating.

Speaker #1 - It really is a window into a different time and a different set of social values.

Speaker #0 - And it highlights how power dynamics can shape the course of justice even centuries ago.

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. But to really get a sense of how this all played out, we need some more context.

Speaker #0 - You're right. Were there any cases where people from less privileged backgrounds faced harsher consequences for similar actions?

Speaker #1 - Oh, absolutely. Take the case of Jean-Philippe Guex.

Speaker #0 - Who was he?

Speaker #1 He was also accused of an illicit affair. But unlike François, he received a much harsher punishment. Nine days in prison on bread and water, plus a hefty fine.

Speaker #0 - Ouch. Talk about a double standard. What made his case so different?

Speaker #1 - Well, here's where the political landscape comes into play. Guex's stepfather was a leader of a group called the Artichokes.

Speaker #0 - The Artichokes? What were they, some kind of secret society?

Speaker #1 - Not quite. They were a faction that had opposed the Calvin's vision of the Reformation and were ultimately condemned by the Genevan authorities.

Speaker #0 - Ah, so being associated with them was basically a death sentence for your reputation?

Speaker #1 - You could say that. It definitely tainted Guex in the eyes of the consistory, making him an easy target.

Speaker #0 - So it wasn't just about personal morality. It was also about who you were connected to and where you stood politically.

Speaker #1 - Exactly. François, with his wealth and connections to the established elite, knew how to play the game.

Speaker #0 - It's frustrating to see how those in power could manipulate the system to their advantage.

Speaker #1 - It's a tale as old as time, unfortunately.

Speaker #0 - But that's what makes history so fascinating, right? uncovering these hidden truths and seeing how they shape the world we live in today.

Speaker #1 - Couldn't have said it better myself. And with François, we've only just scratched the surface.

Speaker #0 - This is getting good. It sounds like he was more than just a charming rogue. There's a darker, more calculated side to him that we're just starting to uncover.

Speaker #1 - Oh, you have no idea. Stay tuned, because François'story is far from over.

[part. 2]

Speaker #0 - So François is basically getting away with everything. thanks to his money and connections.

Speaker #1 - Well, he was definitely good at navigating the system.

Speaker #0 - But it seems like he couldn't resist pushing the boundaries even further.

Speaker #1 - You're right about that. In 1549, we find him caught up in a rather peculiar incident.

Speaker #0 - Oh no, what did he do this time?

Speaker #1 - He's accused, along with a man named Jean-François Chapuis, of possessing a book of enchantment.

Speaker #0 - A book of enchantment? Sounds like something straight out of a Harry Potter novel.

Speaker #1 - Right. It definitely captures the imagination. But in the context of 16th century Geneva, this was serious business.

Speaker #0 - Wait, really? Why? Was it like forbidden knowledge or something?

Speaker #1 - You have to remember the religious climate of the time.

Speaker #0 - Yeah.

Speaker #1 - The Reformation had brought about a heightened awareness of spiritual matters.

Speaker #0 - Sure, but how does a book of enchantment fit into that?

Speaker #1 - Well, magic was often associated with the devil and seen as a threat to the social and religious order.

Speaker #0 -  Ah, so having a book like that could be seen as dabbling in the occult.

Speaker #1 - Exactly. And that could land you in some serious trouble. especially with the consistory keeping a close eye on everyone.

Speaker #0 - So possessing a book of magic wasn't just a harmless hobby. It could actually be dangerous.

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. It could even lead to accusations of witchcraft, which were taken very seriously back then. Wow,

Speaker #0 - I hadn't thought about it like that. It really shows how intertwined religion and superstition were in everyday life.

Speaker #1 - It does. But let's get back to Jean-François Chapuis. Was he just some random accomplice, or is there a connection to François?

Speaker #0 - Knowing François, I'm betting there's a connection.

Speaker #1 - You're right. It turns out that this Jean-François Chapuis was most likely François Chapuis, a physician.

Speaker #0 - A physician. So maybe they were using the book for medicinal purposes.

Speaker #1 - That's a possibility. But here's the kicker. Francois Chapuis was married to François Bourdon's sister. No way!

Speaker #0 - Family drama alert. So, François is hanging out with his brother-in-law, messing around with a book of enchantment. What were they thinking?

Speaker #1 - It's a mystery. The records don't reveal their motives. Were they true believers in magic or just curious? We can only speculate.

Speaker #0 - I can just imagine the whispers going around Geneva. Have you heard about the Bourdons and their book of spells?

Speaker #1 - Right. It definitely adds a layer of intrigue to François'story. It shows he wasn't afraid to explore the fringes of acceptable behavior.

Speaker #0 - But something tells me this wasn't the end of François'troubles. What happened next?

Speaker #1 - Well, in 1560, he finds himself in hot water again. And this time, it's got political implications.

Speaker #0 - Uh-oh. I knew those political ambitions would come back to bite him eventually.

Speaker #1 - The consistory records show François'supporting man named Jean-Baptiste Morely, "seigneur de Villiers".

Speaker #0 - Okay, and who was this Morely character?

Speaker #1 - Well, Morely had made some pretty serious accusations against Genevan ministers. He claimed they were involved in a plot against France.

Speaker #0 - Whoa! Conspiracy theories in the 16th century! Some things never change, do they?

Speaker #1 - Apparently not. But the question is, why was François backing Morely? Was he a true believer in these accusations, or was there something more strategic at play?

Speaker #0 - Hmm. Good question. What do you think?

Speaker #1 - But remember, this is a time of political upheaval in Geneva. They'd just gained independence from Savoy and were establishing themselves as the center of the Reformation.

Speaker #0 - Right, so things were pretty tense.

Speaker #1 - Exactly. Alliances were shifting and the stakes were high. By supporting Morely, François was taking a big risk.

Speaker #0 - He was essentially siding with someone who was accusing the Genevan leadership of treason. That's bold, even for François.

Speaker #1 - It was a gamble that could have backfired spectacularly. And in fact, it did. Morely's accusations turned out to be false.

Speaker #0 - Oops. So not only was François meddling in dangerous political games, he was backing the wrong horse.

Speaker #1 - You could say that. It makes you wonder if he had a good grasp of the political realities or if he was just blinded by ambition.

Speaker #0 - It's interesting to see how his personal life and political maneuvering were intertwined.

Speaker #1 - It definitely adds another dimension to his character. He wasn't just a womanizer. He was a player in the larger political arena of Geneva.

Speaker #0 - But to understand his motivations, I think we need to go back to his roots. Tell us more about François'family.

Speaker #1 - Well, as we mentioned earlier, François came from a very prominent family. His father, Jean Bourdon, was a wealthy merchant and a member of the Council of 200.

Speaker #0 - The Council of 200. That's like the inner circle of power in Geneva.

Speaker #1 - Precisely. So François grew up surrounded by wealth and influence. It was practically his birthright.

Speaker #0 - No wonder he had such a sense of entitlement. Do you think his upbringing shaped his behavior?

Speaker #1 - It's hard to say for sure, but it's definitely a possibility. Growing up in that environment, might have given him a sense that he was above the rules.

Speaker #0 - And what about his brother? What role did he play in François'life?

Speaker #1 - His brother, Julien, was "co-seigneur" of Compois with François. They acquired this seigneury, basically a feudal lordship, back in 1542.

Speaker #0 - Okay, so we're not just talking about a wealthy family. We're talking about landowners with real power and authority. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. And this is crucial for understanding François'story. He wasn't just a lone wolf causing trouble. He was part of a powerful network with deep roots in Genevan society. 

Speaker #0 - So the name Bourdon carried a lot of weight.

Speaker #1 - It did. And that probably gave François a sense of protection, even when he was pushing the boundaries.

Speaker #0 - It makes you wonder how his family felt about his antics. Did they ever try to rein him in?

Speaker #1 - That's a great question. But unfortunately, the consistory records don't offer much insight into their feelings or actions.

Speaker #0 - It's like they're lurking in the shadows, watching as Francois plays his dangerous games.

Speaker #1 - Right. But their silence is telling in itself. It suggests they either condoned his behavior or were powerless to stop him.

Speaker #0 - So François'story isn't just about individual actions. It's about the power of family and social networks.

Speaker #1 - Precisely. It shows how these networks can both enable and protect those who belong to them.

Speaker #0 - It's a fascinating glimpse into the complexities of power and privilege in 16th century Geneva.

Speaker #1 - And it raises some important questions about how these dynamics still operate today. 

Speaker #0 - It's incredible how we started with a single name in some old documents, and now we're uncovering a whole web of intrigue and social commentary.

Speaker #1 - That's the beauty of history. There's always more to uncover, more layers to peel back.

Speaker #0 - I'm hooked. I can't wait to see where François'story takes us next. You know, we've talked a lot about François, but we haven't really touched on the women in his life.

Speaker #1 - That's a good point. They kind of fade into the background.

Speaker #0 - Exactly. But their stories are important too, right? What can you tell us about them?

Speaker #1 - Well, unfortunately, the records don't don't give us a ton of detail about their lives.

Speaker #0 - Yeah, typical historical documents, always focused on the men.

Speaker #1 - It's true, but we can still glean some insights from what we do have.

Speaker #0 - Okay, so let's start with Jeanne  de La Joux. She pops up a couple of times, both as the mother of François'child.

Speaker #1 - Right, first in 1545, then again in 1547.

Speaker #0 - It makes you wonder about her situation. What was her life like?

Speaker #1 - Well, we know she was a servant.

Speaker #0 - Right, which put her in a pretty vulnerable position.

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. Her livelihood depended on her employers, and that created a power imbalance.

Speaker #0 - Especially with someone like François, who clearly wasn't afraid to use his influence.

Speaker #1 - Exactly. And remember, this is 16th century Geneva. A woman's reputation was everything.

Speaker #0 - So a relationship with François could have serious consequences for her.

Speaker #1 - Definitely. Could damage her reputation, make it hard to find work, even lead to social ostracism.

Speaker #0 - It's sad to think she might have had limited choices in that situation.

Speaker #1 - It is. And it highlights the constraints women faced back then.

Speaker #0 - And then there's Robelle Reclan, the butcher's wife.

Speaker #1 - Ah, yes. François's affair with her adds another layer of complexity.

Speaker #0 - Adultery was a serious offense, right?

Speaker #1 - Oh, absolutely. It violated both religious and social norms.

Speaker #0 - And the punishments. Were they the same for men and women?

Speaker #1 - Unfortunately, not always. Women often bore the brunt of the consequences.

Speaker #0 - That figures. Double standards are nothing new, I guess.

Speaker #1 - Sadly, you're right. Their reputations were often tarnished, and that could have serious economic and social repercussions.

Speaker #0 - It's just not fair. But there's another woman in this story whose experience is even more disturbing. The woman François was accused of raping.

Speaker #1 - Jeanette Domenge, yes. That incident happened in Compois. Remember where François was "co-seigneur"?

Speaker #0 - Right, right. What a horrible situation to accuse a man like François of something like that.

Speaker #1 - It would have taken immense courage, especially given his power and influence.

Speaker #0 - I can't imagine how difficult that must have been for her.

Speaker #1 - It makes you wonder how many other women might have suffered similar experiences but never spoke out.

Speaker #0 - Or whose stories were never recorded. It's heartbreaking.

Speaker #1 - It is a reminder that the historical record is often incomplete and biased.

Speaker #0 - It's our job to try and fill in those gaps, to give voice to the silenced.

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. To consider the perspectives that might be missing.

Speaker #0 - It's the only way to get a truly balanced understanding of the past.

Speaker #1 - And it's why François'story is so important. It's not just about him. It's about understanding the society he lived in.

Speaker #0 - The power dynamics, the social norms, the challenges faced by those who didn't have his privilege.

Speaker #1 - Exactly. It's a microcosm of 16th century Geneva.

Speaker #0 - I have to say, this deep dive has been a real eye-opener.

Speaker #1 - It's amazing how much we can learn from these old documents.

Speaker #0 - We started with a single name and ended up uncovering a whole world.

Speaker #1 - A world of scandal, intrigue, and social commentary.

Speaker #0 - But also a world of ordinary people trying to navigate their lives within a complex system.

Speaker #1 - It's a reminder that history is made up of real people, with real stories.

Speaker #0 - And that their stories deserve to be told, even the ones that are often silenced.

Speaker #1 - So to our listener, we encourage you to keep exploring these hidden corners of history.

Speaker #0 - Look beyond the surface, consider the untold stories, and challenge the dominant narratives.

Speaker #1 - Because it's in those forgotten voices that we often find the most valuable truths. 

Speaker #0 - And who knows, maybe you'll even uncover a few scandals along the way.

Speaker #1 - Well, that's always a bonus.

François Bourdon: a Genevan notable and his struggles with consistorial siscipline (c. 1540s-1550s)

Introduction
Sixteenth-century Geneva, under the influence of John Calvin and his fellow reformers, was a society undergoing profound moral and religious transformation. The Consistory, a body composed of pastors and elders, played a crucial role in enforcing this new moral order, scrutinizing the lives of Genevans and correcting deviations from the established norms. This article will focus on one notable Genevan, François Bourdon, whose repeated encounters with the Consistory provide a fascinating glimpse into the tensions between social status, personal behavior, and the demands of religious discipline in early Reformation Geneva. Drawing upon Consistory records, Council Registers, and secondary sources, this study examines the accusations leveled against Bourdon, the responses he offered, and the factors that may have influenced the Consistory's handling of his cases.

The Bourdon family: wealth, status, and influence
To understand François Bourdon's position within Genevan society, it is essential to consider his family background. The Bourdons were a wealthy and well-connected family in Geneva. François's father, Jean Bourdon, was a wealthy cloth merchant ("riche marchand drapier") who became a bourgeois of Geneva in 1512. Jean held numerous important positions within the city, including membership in the Council of Two Hundred (CC) in 1530 and 1541, and the Council of Sixty (LX) from 1534 to 1540. He also served as a hospital administrator ("hospitalier") at the Hôpital général in 1536. Jean Bourdon's marriage to Jacquema, sister of Claude Savoye, further enhanced the family's standing. Claude Savoye was a key figure in Genevan politics, serving as the first syndic (chief magistrate) in 1536, the year of the Reformation's adoption, and as master of the Geneva Mint.
François Bourdon himself inherited this privileged status. He was a member of the Council of Two Hundred in 1544 and co-lord ("co-seigneur") of Compois with his brother Julien, a seigneury purchased in 1542. Julien Bourdon also held significant positions, including membership in the Council of Two Hundred in 1541. Other members of the Bourdon family also achieved prominence: Gabrielle Bourdon married Jacques Blondel, a syndic, and Jeanne Bourdon married Jean Let the younger and later François Chapuis, a city physician. This network of familial connections to influential figures like Savoye, Donzel, Lect, and Chapuis demonstrates the Bourdon family's deep integration into Genevan society. This high social standing, however, did not shield François Bourdon from the scrutiny of the Consistory.

Accusations of fornication: Jeanne de La Jouz and illegitimate children
The Consistory records reveal that François Bourdon was repeatedly accused of fornication ("paillardise"). The first documented case occurred in 1545, involving Jeanne de La Jouz, a servant from Hermance. Bourdon was accused of having had sexual relations with Jeanne, resulting in the birth of a child who was then baptized in the Catholic faith ("baptisé à la papisterie"). This accusation was particularly serious, as it combined fornication with a rejection of the Reformed faith.
The Council Registers record that Bourdon was imprisoned and interrogated. He initially refused to confess, leading to further detention. Eventually, Bourdon was compelled to acknowledge his offense, and Jeanne de La Jouz was released after publicly repenting ("crie merci à Dieu et à la Justice"). Bourdon was sentenced to publicly express gratitude to God and justice and to pay a fine of six écus, in addition to covering the costs of his imprisonment and legal proceedings.
The case of Jeanne de La Jouz was not an isolated incident. In 1547, Bourdon was again accused of fornication with Jeanne de La Jouz, who was now working as a servant for Henri Aubert. This renewed accusation further tarnished Bourdon's reputation and demonstrated a pattern of behavior that defied the Consistory's moral expectations.

Robelle Reclan: adultery and confession
In 1547-1548, François Bourdon was implicated in another case of sexual misconduct, this time involving Robelle Reclan, the wife of Jean de Gex, a butcher residing on the Rhône bridge. Robelle was found to be pregnant, and suspicion quickly fell on Bourdon. Initially, Julien Bourdon, François's brother, was mistakenly accused of the affair, but the Consistory soon discovered that François was the guilty party.
The Consistory summoned both Bourdon and Robelle for questioning. Robelle admitted to having given birth to a child about a month prior, and she identified Bourdon as the father. Bourdon confessed to having had sexual relations with Robelle, who was already married to Jean de Gex. As a result of their confession, Bourdon and Robelle were imprisoned on March 5, 1548. A week later, they were released after publicly repenting. Bourdon was fined five florins for himself and another five florins for Robelle. This case was particularly serious as it involved adultery, a transgression that was viewed as a grave offense against both marital vows and the social order.

Jeannette Domenge: accusations of rape
The most serious accusation against François Bourdon involved Jeannette Domenge, the sister of Georges Domenge. In 1548, Bourdon was accused of raping Jeannette in Compois. The Consistory records indicate that Bourdon was imprisoned for this alleged act of violence. The Council dispatched the Attorney General and the Lieutenant to Compois to investigate the matter. Their investigation provided strong evidence of Bourdon's guilt, leading to further legal proceedings.
The details of this case are particularly disturbing. The accusation of rape represented a significant escalation in the severity of Bourdon's alleged offenses. While the Consistory had previously dealt with cases of fornication and adultery, the charge of rape involved a clear violation of the victim's bodily autonomy and a serious breach of social norms. This accusation placed Bourdon in a precarious position, potentially facing severe penalties if found guilty.
Despite the gravity of the charges, Bourdon managed to secure his release from prison on September 13, 1548. The exact reasons for his release are not entirely clear from the available records, but it is likely that his social standing and family connections played a role. He was still required to express public repentance and pay the costs of the proceedings, as well as a fine of 15 florins.

Possession of an enchantment book
In 1550, François Bourdon faced another accusation, this time related to the possession of an enchantment book ("livre d'enchantement"). The records indicate that Bourdon and Jean-François Chapuis (likely the doctor François Chapuis) were suspected of possessing this book, which was deemed "contrary to God." This accusation suggests a concern about the potential for magic and superstition to undermine the Reformed faith. The details of this case are relatively sparse, but it demonstrates the Consistory's vigilance in monitoring not only sexual behavior but also intellectual and religious beliefs.

Consistory's response: factors influencing leniency?
Despite the repeated accusations and findings of guilt against François Bourdon, the punishments he received appear relatively lenient compared to those meted out to other offenders. Several factors may explain this apparent discrepancy:

• Social status and family connections: Bourdon's wealth and family connections undoubtedly afforded him a degree of protection. As a member of a prominent Genevan family, he likely benefited from the influence of his relatives and allies within the Consistory and the Council.
• Unmarried status: A crucial factor in Bourdon's relative leniency was his unmarried status ("célibataire"). In the patriarchal society of 16th-century Geneva, there was a degree of tolerance for the sexual transgressions of unmarried men, as long as they did not involve adultery or rape. The Consistory may have viewed Bourdon's fornication as a less serious offense because he was not violating the sanctity of marriage.
• Gender bias: The Consistory's leniency towards Bourdon may also reflect the gender biases prevalent in the society. Men were often held to a lower standard of sexual morality than women, and their transgressions were frequently excused or minimized. Bourdon himself seemed to acknowledge this double standard, reportedly stating that he intended to father several illegitimate children before marrying.
• Confession and repentance: In each case, Bourdon eventually confessed his guilt and expressed repentance, even if initially reluctant. This willingness to acknowledge his wrongdoing may have influenced the Consistory's decision to impose less severe punishments.

Conclusion
The case of François Bourdon provides valuable insights into the dynamics of moral regulation in early Reformation Geneva. While the Consistory sought to enforce strict behavioral standards, its application of justice was often influenced by social status, family connections, and gender biases. Bourdon's repeated encounters with the Consistory demonstrate the tensions between the ideals of religious discipline and the realities of social power. Despite his transgressions, Bourdon managed to navigate the Consistory's scrutiny with relative ease, owing to his privileged position and the prevailing attitudes towards unmarried men's sexual behavior. Ultimately, the story of François Bourdon reveals the complexities of life in a society grappling with the challenges of religious and moral reform. While the Consistory aimed to create a godly community, its efforts were often tempered by the realities of social inequality and the enduring influence of traditional norms. François Bourdon's life serves as a reminder that even in the most rigorously moralistic societies, human nature and social dynamics can complicate the enforcement of even the most stringently held ideals. The Consistory records, by capturing the many facets of a notable citizen's life and struggles with moral conduct, underscore the nuanced interplay between social standing and the burgeoning ethos of religious discipline in 16th-century Geneva.

Some reference studies on bawdiness and adultery during the Reformation era

• Sara BEAM, "Adultère, indices médicaux et recul de la torture à Genève (XVII^e siècle)", Genre et histoire: la revue de l'Association Mnémosyne, n° 16 (Femmes sans mari), 2015/09-11, online  (web)
• Sara BEAM, "Gender and the prosecution of adultery in Geneva, 1550-1700", in Manon van der HEIJDEN / Marion PLUSKOTA / Sanne MUURLING (ed.), Women's criminality in Europe, 1600-1914, Cambridge (MA): Cambridge University Press, 2020/01, pp. 91-113  (web)
• Carolyn CORRETTI / Sukumar P. DESAI, "Fornication and illegitimacy in Reformation Geneva: cases from the Consistory, 1542-1558", Journal of family history, vol. 47, n° 4, 2022/02, pp. 452-465  (web)
• Pierre DUBUIS, "Sous la tutelle des pères et des maris", in Erica DEUBER ZIEGLER / Natalia TIKHONOV (éd.), Les femmes dans la mémoire de Genève, du XV^e au XX^e siècle, Genève: Éditions Suzanne Hurter , 2005, p. 32-33
• Robert M. KINGDON, Adultery and divorce in Calvin's Geneva, Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1995/03, 224 p.
• Balazs D. MAGYAR, "Fornication and adultery in the city of Debrecen (1547-1625) compared with the morality of Geneva", Verbum et ecclesia, vol. 44, n° 1, 2023, online  (web) 
• Michèle ROBERT, "Que dorénavant chacun fuie paillardise, oisiveté, gourmandise...": Réforme et contrôle des moeurs, la justice consistoriale dans le Pays de Neuchâtel (1547-1848), Neuchâtel (CH): ALPHIL - presses universitaires suisses, 2016, 468 p.
• Sonia VERNHES-RAPPAZ, "La noyade judiciaire dans la République de Genève (1558-1619)", Crime, histoire et sociétés, vol. 13, n° 1, 2009, p. 5-24  (web)
• Jeffrey R. WATT,  "Sex in Geneva in the Sixteenth Century", in Merry E. WIESNER-HANKS / Mathew KUEFLER, The Cambridge world history of sexualities, Cambridge (MA): Cambridge University Press, 2024/04, pp. 210-231  (web)
• Elisabeth WENGLER, "Rethinking "Calvin's Geneve": women, agency, and religious authority in Reformation Geneva", Journal of the Western Society for French history, vol. 35, 2007, pp. 55-70   (web)
• John WITTE Jr., "Church, state, and family in John Calvin's Geneva: domestic disputes and sex crimes in Geneva's Consistory and Council", in Per ANDERSEN (ed.), Law and disputing in the Middle Ages, Copenhagen: Djof Publishing, 2013, p. 245-280   (web)