Geneva's Reformation and Independence

Welcome to "Really Calvin, is this an ideal life? A historical podcast." In today's episode, we delve into the fascinating journey of Geneva's independence during the tumultuous years of the Reformation. Christophe Chazalon's research reveals a complex and gradual process that shaped the city's destiny.
Geneva's path to autonomy was paved with significant milestones: the acquisition of civil jurisdiction, the ousting of the prince-bishop for treason, and the bold move to mint its own currency. The adoption of the Reformation in 1536 marked a pivotal moment in this journey. However, Chazalon challenges traditional narratives, emphasizing the nuanced reality of these events. Drawing from the meticulous records of Geneva's Council, he paints a picture of a city navigating a delicate balance of power. The study highlights Bern's crucial role as an ally and protector, while also exploring the complex web of relationships with France and the Holy Roman Empire.
This episode offers a fresh perspective on how Geneva transformed from a small city under Savoyard influence to the independent "Protestant Rome" we know from history.

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Speaker #0 - All right, let's get into it. Today, we're exploring a pretty cool story. The story of how Geneva became independent. 

Speaker #1 - It's one of those stories you think you know, but then when you really dig into it, it's so much more complex. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah. Well, especially for this deep dive, we're looking at Chazalon's "Registres du Conseil de Genève: Independence et Reforme.pdf", which, if you haven't heard of it, it's an analysis of Geneva's council records right around the time of the Reformation. 

Speaker #1 - Fascinating period. 

Speaker #0 - A fascinating period. A lot going on. Absolutely. And you know, when you think about Geneva today, you think of it as this peaceful international city. 

Speaker #1 - Right. A hub for diplomacy. 

Speaker #0 - But getting there, getting to independence was anything but peaceful. 

Speaker #1 - Oh, yeah. 

Speaker #0 - It was,... there's a lot of political maneuvering. 

Speaker #1 - For sure. 

Speaker #0 - Religious upheaval. And even some creative financial solutions, I think we could say.

Speaker #1 - Indeed, yeah. It's a multi-stage process. You know, it's not just one thing. You can look at the transfer of civil justice, the bishop's departure, the quote unquote usurpation of regal rights, and of course, the impact of the Reformation all intertwined to shape this independence movement. 

Speaker #0 - So it's not quite as simple as just like. We're going to get rid of the bishop and we're independent. 

Speaker #1 - It would be nice. 

Speaker #0 - Let's have a party. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah. Simple. It wasn't quite like that. 

Speaker #0 - OK, so what's... what's one of the big misconceptions that you see about this this story? 

Speaker #1 - I think a big one is that Genevans just chased their bishop out and declared independence. But these council records tell a different story. 

Speaker #0 - Okay. All right. 

Speaker #1 - Much more intricate. 

Speaker #0 - So let's break it down a little bit. What actually happened with this bishop? 

Speaker #1 - So the bishop, Pierre de La Baume, he leaves Geneva in 1533, and there was pressure for sure from reformers. Tensions were high, you know. But here's the thing. He fully intended to come back. He wasn't thinking this was permanent, and the Genevans, they were working within the existing systems, right? Trying to keep things stable. 

Speaker #0 - So what changed? What made it that he never came back? 

Speaker #1 - Well, ironically, his own actions. He allies with the Duke of Savoy. You know. Savoy, as you know, had his own eye on Geneva. 

Speaker #0 - Right, right. 

Speaker #1 - So to the Genevans, this looks like a betrayal, like he's siding with the enemy. And that's what made his return impossible. 

Speaker #0 - Wow. So it's like he kind of played right into the. 

Speaker #1 - He did. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, maybe unintentionally, but he did.  

Speaker #1 - Wow. Okay. So even though he was gone, though, there's still the pressure from Savoy.  

Speaker #0 - Oh, for sure. Savoy sees this power vacuum as an opportunity, and decides to impose a blockade on Geneva, trying to bring them to their knees.  

Speaker #1 - Right, to squeeze them. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, and that's when things take a really fascinating turn, especially when you look at it from a financial perspective. This is where the minting of coins comes in, right? 

Speaker #1 - Yes, exactly. 

Speaker #0 - Just seems like a pretty bold move. 

Speaker #1 - It was bold, but also born of necessity. The blockade had crippled their economy, funds were depleted, and they needed a solution. And this was it. 

Speaker #0 - So they're minting their own coins. I get the symbolic importance of that. But was it even legal for them to do that at the time? 

Speaker #1 - Well, it definitely challenged the powers that be. You know. Minting coins was considered a regal right, something reserved for kings or emperors. But in Geneva's case, the situation was a bit nuanced because over a century earlier, the bishops had actually given control of coinage to the Duke of Savoy. 

Speaker #0 - Oh, interesting. 

Speaker #1 - So it wasn't a right that the bishop was actively using. It was more like a lost privilege...

Speaker #0 - Oh, I see. 

Speaker #1 - ... that they were reclaiming. And they did it in a really clever way.

Speaker #0 - How so? 

Speaker #1 - They melted down confiscated church treasure. So, not only did they get the raw material for their new coins, but it also sent a powerful message. Geneva was breaking away from the old order. 

Speaker #0 - Right. 

Speaker #1 - Both politically and financially. 

Speaker #0 - So it wasn't just like, oh, we happen to have some extra metal laying around. 

Speaker #1 - It was very symbolic. 

Speaker #0 - Very intentional. 

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. It established their autonomy in a very real way. 

Speaker #0 - Okay. And all this time, this is all happening while the Reformation is kind of bubbling up in the background? 

Speaker #1 - Right. Exactly. 

Speaker #0 - So I can't imagine that didn't have some sort of impact on things. 

Speaker #1 - It's all connected. The Reformation is deeply intertwined with Geneva's fight for independence. In fact, May 21st, 1536, is often cited as the date for both. 

Speaker #0 - Oh, wow. 

Speaker #1 - The Reformation's adoption and Geneva's freedom. But like everything else we've been talking about, the reality is way more complicated than just one date. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, I was going to say, I'm sure it's not quite as simple as everybody just woke up and said, "hey, it's Reformation Day and also Independence Day, let's party!" 

Speaker #1 - Two for one.

Speaker #0 - Yeah! Yeah! Exactly!

Speaker #1 - Not quite...

Speaker #0 - Okay! So... So what is what does this historical analysis tell us about the reformation's role in all this?

Speaker #1 - Well, it wasn't like a sudden overnight conversion, you know. It was more gradual. There were internal debates shifting allegiances and even some dramatic events that ultimately pushed Geneva towards embracing the reformation. 

Speaker #0 - Oh, okay! So like what kind of events are we talking?

Speaker #1 - Well, for example, there was the dispute to Rive.

Speaker #0 - What's that? 

Speaker #1 - Picture this. A public debate held on the banks of the Rhone River. 

Speaker #0 - Okay. 

Speaker #1 - With Catholic priests and Protestant reformers going head to head, arguing about religious doctrine. 

Speaker #0 - So a little more exciting than your average Sunday service. 

Speaker #1 - Definitely. It was quite a spectacle, and it really stirred things up. This dispute derive ignited passions on both sides, and things escalated quickly. There are accounts of iconoclasm, destruction of religious images, which heightened tensions and further destabilized the city. 

Speaker #0 - So amidst all this chaos and with the bishop gone, did the Genevan leadership just kind of say, "all right, let's just go all in on the Reformation"? 

Speaker #1 - Not quite that straightforward. No. The council definitely leaned towards the reformers, but initially they tried to keep a balance. You know, appease both Catholics and Protestants. They even suspended mass for a while, hoping to calm things down. 

Speaker #0 - Buy themselves some time. 

Speaker #1 -Exactly. 

Speaker #0 - Okay. But that obviously didn't last. So what was it that tipped the scales in favor of the Reformation? 

Speaker #1 - Well, it was a bunch of factors coming together, really. The bishop leaving was a big obstacle removed, and more and more influential people in Geneva were openly supporting the Reformation. And as more Catholic figures, clergy and nobles chose to leave the city, the momentum shifted decisively toward the reformers. 

Speaker #0 - So it wasn't like a revolution so much as... 

Speaker #1 - Like a gradual shift. 

Speaker #0 - A gradual tide, yeah. That's a great way to put it. And all this, remember, was happening against the backdrop of intense political maneuvering. 

Speaker #1 - Oh, right, right, right. 

Speaker #0 - Geneva wasn't operating in a vacuum. 

Speaker #1 - With all the other big players. Okay, well, let's talk about those big players then. 

Speaker #0 - Okay.

Speaker #1 - So, Berne, France, and the Holy Roman Empire. All have kind of a vested interest in what's happening in Geneva. 

Speaker #0 - Absolutely. 

Speaker #1 - So I imagine that was a very...

Speaker #0 - It was a delicate balancing act for Geneva to navigate all of that. 

Speaker #1 - And kind of. I mean, how did they, I mean, how do you come out on top in that situation? 

Speaker #0 - By playing their cards, right? The historical analysis suggests that they used the competing interests of these powers to their advantage.

Speaker #1 - Smart.

Speaker #0 -  They formed alliances, played hard to get.

Speaker #1 - Right. 

Speaker #0 - Really... Used every tool in their diplomatic toolbox. 

Speaker #1 - Wow. So they're really using all their political savvy. 

Speaker #0 - To kind of survive... Okay. So are there any particularly interesting details in the council records? 

Speaker #1 - Let me think. Well, there's mention of secret negotiations between French and Bernese officials. 

Speaker #0 - Ooh, juicy. 

Speaker #1 - That seem to have had a big impact on Geneva's fate. It looks like... both powers wanted control of the city but ultimately they reached a balance of power, maybe some backroom deals were made. We don't know for sure, but the details remain a mystery.

Speaker #0 -  Okay. So we have this Geneva breaking free from the catholic church, maneuvering between these powerful allies. They're minting their own coins. So, it seems like they're well on their way to becoming a full-fledged republic.

Speaker #1 - Well, not quite, and this is where we have to clear up another common misconception.

Speaker #0 - Okay. 

Speaker #1 - So, even though Geneva separated from the Catholic Church and gained a lot of independence, technically, they were still part of the Holy Roman Empire. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah. Okay, wait. So they're independent...

Speaker #1- It's a bit. 

Speaker #0 - But not really. How does that work? 

Speaker #1 - It's a historical quirk, I guess you could say. The term "signory" or "lordship" is actually more accurate than "republic" for Geneva at this time.

Speaker #0 - Interesting.

Speaker #1 - They had their own council. They controlled their own affairs, but they weren't fully sovereign, not in the modern sense of the word. 

Speaker #0 - Okay, so I think I'm getting the picture here. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah. 

Speaker #0 - Geneva's independence was not a straight line. 

Speaker #1 - Not at all. 

Speaker #0 - It was messy and complicated. 

Speaker #1 - For sure. 

Speaker #0 - But they really made it work. 

Speaker #1 - They did. 

Speaker #0 - They made compromises, built alliances, and played the game of power to get what they wanted. 

Speaker #1 - That's exactly right. 

Speaker #0 - It's a far cry from the way we usually romanticize revolutions. 

Speaker #1 - It's real history, you know. It's messy and complicated. 

Speaker #0 - It's not as simple as the history books sometimes make it seem. 

Speaker #1 - Right. And it's those compromises and those alliances that really shaped this unique independence they achieved. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, they defied expectations. 

Speaker #1 - They did. 

Speaker #0 - Challenged the status quo and created a place for themselves. 

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. 

Speaker #0 - On the world stage. 

Speaker #1 - Don't forget. All of this, while they're doing all this, they're also dealing with the pressures from outside forces. 

Speaker #0 - Right, right. Like, we can't forget about Berne and France and the Holy Roman Empire. 

Speaker #1 - That's like all those players. 

Speaker #0 - All those big players. 

Speaker #1 - All had a stake in what was happening in Geneva. 

Speaker #0 - So I imagine that was... 

Speaker #1 - Oh, it was a high stakes game of diplomacy with Geneva trying to, you know, to survive amongst these bigger powers. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah. They're trying to secure their own interests. ..

Speaker #1 - Exactly. 

Speaker #0 - ... while everybody else is also trying to get a piece. 

Speaker #1 - Berne, you know, being Protestant, saw an opportunity to spread their influence. King Francis I of France wanted Geneva for its strategic location. And then you had the Holy Roman Empire, which technically Geneva was still part of. 

Speaker #0 - Right, right. So, yeah, they were walking a tightrope. 

Speaker #1 - Oh, for sure. Yeah, it sounds like they're playing. three-dimensional chess or something. 

Speaker #0 - Right. And so how did they manage to come out on top?

Speaker #1 - Yeah. How do you even survive that? 

Speaker #0 - Well, it seems like they played it really smart. The historical analysis suggests that they leveraged these competing interests against each other. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, yeah. 

Speaker #0 - They formed alliances when they needed to, played hard to get sometimes. They really... They were shrewd. They knew how to play the game. 

Speaker #1 - Okay. So are there any like specific details in the council records about how they they managed to do that?

Speaker #0 - Well, there's a mention of secret negotiations between French and Bernese officials that probably had a big impact on what happened. You know, both powers wanted to control the city right but somehow they came to this balance of power.

Speaker #1 - Yeah, I'm sure. There were some... maybe some deals made behind closed doors. Backroom deals. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, exactly.

Speaker #1 - The details are lost to history. 

Speaker #0 - Lost to history. 

Speaker #1 - OK. 

Speaker #0 - OK. So we have Geneva breaking free from the Catholic Church. They're navigating between all these powerful allies. They're even minting their own coins. 

Speaker #1 - Yes. 

Speaker #0 - So it really seems like they are on the road to becoming like a full fledged republic. 

Speaker #1 - Well, not so fast. And this is where this is where it gets kind of tricky because, you know, they did break away from the church and they gained a lot of independence for sure, but technically they were still a part of the Holy Roman Empire. It's one of those little historical quirks...

Speaker #0 - So they're independent...

Speaker #1 -  It's like.

Speaker #0 -  ... but not really. I mean, how does that... how does that even work.

Speaker #1 - So, it's... The term "signory" or "lordship", actually, is more accurate than "republic".

Speaker #0 - Than republic, yeah.

Speaker #1 -  Okay. They had their council. They controlled their own affairs, but they weren't like a fully sovereign state. 

Speaker #0 - I see. 

Speaker #1 - Not in the way we think of it today. 

Speaker #0 - So this whole thing was, it wasn't just about breaking free. It was about...

Speaker #1 - It was about figuring out. 

Speaker #0 - ... figuring out how to operate in this very complicated system.

Speaker #1 - Yeah, absolutely.

Speaker #0 - So their independence was really shaped by those compromises, those alliances. 

Speaker #1 - It was a unique form of independence. 

Speaker #0 - It's so interesting. It's like they lost their bishop. They had this blockade. Right. They were caught between these empires. And yet they emerged. 

Speaker #1 - And somehow. 

Speaker #0 - They came out stronger. Yeah. 

Speaker #1 - And with a clearer sense of who they were. 

Speaker #0 - It's pretty remarkable, isn't it? 

Speaker #1 - It really is. 

Speaker #0 - And what's even more interesting is that this wasn't just a temporary thing. This struggle, it seems to have really shaped their identity. You know, it influenced their institutions, their culture, their whole approach to the world. It's almost like that struggle kind of baked in. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, I think so. 

Speaker #0 - This resilience to them, which is interesting when you think about Geneva today as this center for diplomacy and international cooperation. You almost see the connection. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah, there's a through line there. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, between the city that had to maneuver between these powerful neighbors to the city that's now a place where nations come together to solve problems. 

Speaker #1 - It's pretty amazing. 

Speaker #0 - It is. It is. 

Speaker #1 - And that's maybe the most fascinating part of this whole story. Their path to independence. It wasn't just about breaking away. It was about finding a way to thrive in a complex world. 

Speaker #0 - Right. Where everything's connected. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. And they understood that, that real strength comes from working together, from finding common ground, building those bridges, that walls. 

Speaker #0 - So, it really it makes you think about independence in a in a different way.

Speaker #1 -  In a whole new light, yeah.

Speaker #0 - It's not always black and white...

Speaker #1 - It's not always nuanced. It's about finding your place right in the world.

Speaker #0 - ... and... and working with what you got and the people around you, to get where you need to be.

Speaker #1 - Absolutely.

Speaker #0 - I love it.

Speaker #1 - It's uh... It's a really inspiring story I think.

Speaker #0 - It is, yeah

Speaker #1 - It's like, you know, they took what could have been a defeat, and turned it into a victory. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, it's like they were dealt this hand and they played it masterfully. 

Speaker #1 - They did. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah. 

Speaker #1 - They did. 

Speaker #0 - Okay, so as we wrap up our deep dive into Geneva's independence, I think it's pretty clear that it was a process. 

Speaker #1 - It was a journey. 

Speaker #0 - Journey? 

Speaker #1 - Not a single event. 

Speaker #0 - And it's still shaping Geneva's identity today. 

Speaker #1 - For sure. 

Speaker #0 - Centuries later. 

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. And for you, our listener, the question is, how do you think this unique story of independence continues to influence Geneva's role in the world today? 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, it's something to think about as you explore history. 

Speaker #1 - And the world around you. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, yeah. 

Speaker #1 - Always more to discover. 

Speaker #0 - Always more to discover, that's for sure. 

Speaker #1 - That's right. 

Speaker #0 - All right, well, thanks for joining us on this deep dive into Geneva's independence. 

Speaker #1 - It's been a pleasure. 

Speaker #0 - We'll see you next time. 

Speaker #1 - See you next time. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, it really makes you think about all the different ways independence can look, you know. 

Speaker #1 - It's not always so clear cut. 

Speaker #0 - Not at all. 

Speaker #1 - That's what's so interesting about Geneva. They weren't just fighting to get rid of one specific ruler. It was bigger than that. It was about controlling their own destiny, you know? 

Speaker #0 - Right. Like figuring out their own path, in this like ever-changing world. 

Speaker #1 - It's pretty inspiring. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, it really is. And they did it by like sticking to their ideals, but also like being willing to adapt and... make compromises. 

Speaker #1 - Right. Playing the long game. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah. 

Speaker #1 - That's real history, not the romanticized versions we sometimes hear. 

Speaker #0 - Totally. Yeah. It's a lot messier than that. 

Speaker #1 - Way messier. 

Speaker #0 - It's amazing how they turned what could have been a total loss into something really unique. 

Speaker #1 - I know, right? 

Speaker #0 - They lost their bishop. They were blockaded. They were caught between these huge empires. 

Speaker #1 - It's like, how did they even survive? 

Speaker #0 - I know. And they came out of it even stronger than before. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah. With a clearer sense of who they were. 

Speaker #0 - It's remarkable. 

Speaker #1 - And what's fascinating is that this wasn't just a temporary thing. This whole experience really seems to have like shaped their identity. 

Speaker #0 - Interesting. 

Speaker #1 - It changed their institutions, their culture, even the way they interacted with the rest of the world. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah. Like when you think about Geneva today as this hub for global diplomacy and humanitarian work, you can see those echoes. 

Speaker #1 - Right. For sure. 

Speaker #0 - It's like. the same skills they used to navigate between powerful neighbors back then, are now being used to solve global problems. 

Speaker #1 - That's a really cool way to look at it. 

Speaker #0 - Isn't it? And it kind of shows that their independence wasn't just about breaking free. It was about figuring out how to thrive in a world where everything's connected. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. They understood that real strength comes from working together. 

Speaker #0 - Collaborating. 

Speaker #1 - Yeah. To building bridges. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah. Instead of just trying to go it alone. 

Speaker #1 - Exactly. 

Speaker #0 - So as we wrap up our deep dive into Geneva's independence, I think the biggest takeaway is that it wasn't just a single moment in time. It was a journey, a process that unfolded over years. 

Speaker #1 - Full of twists and turns. 

Speaker #0 - Exactly. And it's a journey that still shapes who they are today. 

Speaker #1 - For sure. 

Speaker #0 - And for you, our listener, I think the question is, how do you think this story, this unique path to independence, continues to influence Geneva's role in the world? 

Speaker #1 - It's something to think about. 

Speaker #0 - Yeah, something to ponder. 

Speaker #1 - As you continue to explore history and really just the world around you.

Speaker #0 - Yeah, because there's always more to discover. 

Speaker #1 - Absolutely. 

Speaker #0 - Well, thanks for joining us on this deep dive into Geneva's independence. It's been a pleasure. 

Speaker #1 - Thanks for having me. 

Speaker #0 - We'll see you next time. 

Speaker #1 - See you then.

This is an excerpt, translated into English, from our study entitled “Synthèse historique III: La tempête avant le calme: réforme religieuse et indépendance d'une ville d'Empire”, published online, in French, in 2024. (web)

Too long to be included on this page, here is a summary:

The Storm Before the Calm: Religious Reform and Independence of an Empire City
By Dr. Christophe Chazalon

This document analyzes Geneva's path to independence from 1526 to 1536, emphasizing that it was a gradual political process intrinsically linked to, but not solely determined by, the religious Reformation. It identifies key factors that fully crystallized by February 1536, when the Duke was defeated: 1) transfer of justice to the community, 2) progressive rejection of the suzerain due to betrayal, 3) supposed usurpation of regalian rights, and 4) the adoption of the Reformation leading to a new Seigneury.

1 - From the transfer of Justice to the Community: this section details how civil justice was ceded to the Community, shifting power away from the prince-bishop. Following the combourgeoisie treaty with Fribourg and Bern in 1526 and the creation of the Council of Two Hundred, the Community progressively gained control over legal matters. Key events include the bishop's attempts to retain jurisdiction, the General Council's prohibition of appeals to the metropolitan court of Vienne, and the suppression of the vidomnat, replacing it with city-appointed officials. The Swiss cantons support played a key role in withstanding the Emperor's pressure to restore these rights to the Duke.

2 - Progressive rejection of the Suzerain due to betrayal: this section discusses the growing rejection of the prince-bishop, Pierre de la Baume, after he left Geneva in July 1533. The document emphasizes that his departure was not initially viewed as permanent, and he intended to return. However, his actions and the actions of his allies, especially the attempted Savoyard attack on Geneva in July 1534, significantly eroded his legitimacy and accelerated his rejection as the rightful ruler, even as the Councils initially sought to maintain a working relationship.

3 - Supposed usurpation of regalian rights: after the failed attack, the Genevans seized what the author calls the "Regalian Rights", once reserved for the Prince, to strengthen their power. Geneva then took decisions without the Bishop's approval. This section likely explores the actions taken by the Genevan authorities that infringed upon the traditional rights and privileges of the prince-bishop, such as controlling coinage, levying taxes, and administering justice in his absence. The Community's appropriation of these rights further consolidated its authority and undermined the bishop's claim to sovereignty. Following their victory against the Duke, in February 1536, the Seigneury voted the Reformation in May. In order to be fully autonomous, Geneva had to embrace these changes, making them "masters of their house". With the introduction of the Reformation, the city now belonged to a new era.

4 - From the adoption of the Reformation to the Advent of a new Seigneury: this final section likely explores how the adoption of the Reformation in May 1536 contributed to the emergence of a new political order in Geneva. While religious reform was not the sole driver of independence, it provided a new ideological framework for the city's governance. The establishment of a new Seigneury, based on reformed principles, marked a decisive break with the old order and solidified Geneva's status as an independent republic.

In conclusion, the document suggests that Geneva's independence was a result of a complex interaction of political, legal, and military factors. It criticizes oversimplified narratives that attribute independence solely to the Reformation. Only with the convergence of these factors could the city of Geneva be considered independent by February 1536.

Some ideas to continue the discovery of "Calvin's Geneva", also known as "Protestant Rome"...

• Jon BALSERAK, "Geneva's use of lies, deceit, and simulation in their efforts to reform France 1536-1563", The Harvard theological review, vol. 112, n° 1, 2019/01, pp. 76-100   (web)
• Philippe BORGEAUD, "L'histoire des religions à Genève, origines et métamorphoses", ASDIWAL: revue genevoise d'anthropologie et d'histoire des religions, n° 1, 2006, pp. 13-22   (web)
• Serge BRUNET, "Institutional violence: the takeover of municipalities by Protestants in the South of France (1560-1562)", Culture and history digital journal, vol. 6, n° 1, 2017, online  (web)
• Patrice DELPHIN, "La Réforme à Genève au XVI^e siècle", clio-texte.clionautes.org, 2016/10, online  (web)
• Robert ORESKO, "The question of the sovereignty of Geneva after the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis", in Helmut G. KOENIGSBERGER (ed.), Republiken und Republikanismus im Europa der Frühen Neuzeit, Berlin / Boston: de Gruyter, 2015 (1^ère éd. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 1988, p. 77-100  (web)
• Lucas RACAUT, "L'Angleterre et la France entre Rome et Genève? Une mise au point historiographique", Histoire, économie et société, vol. 24, n° 2, 2025, pp. 163-170  (web)
• Jean-Daniel MOREROD / Clémence THÉVENAZ / Françoise VANNOTTI (eds.), La Suisse occidentale et l’Empire (actes du colloque de Neuchâtel des 25-27 avril 2002), Lausanne: SHSR, 2004:  
  • Catherine SANTSCHI, "Genève et l’Empire", p. 167-186
  • Mario TURCHETTI, "Genève à la veille de la Réforme, ou comment échapper aux convoitises de la Savoie et à la juridiction de l'Empire", p. 187-200
• Sarah SCHOLL, "Nous sur notre montagne... Les Suisses romands et l'universalisation de la mémoire protestante", Chrétiens et sociétés, n° 23, 2016, pp. 47-64  (web)
• Paul-Edmond MARTIN, "L’émancipation politique de Genève 1519-1536", Almanach paroissial, Genève: Église nationale protestante de Genève, 1936, p. 27-31 
• Milan ZAFIROVSKI, "Forgotten and forgiven? Calvinism and French society", International journal of sociology and anthropology, vol. 6, n° 2, 2014/02, pp. 70-91   (web)